The Report of the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse

Marihuana: A Signal of Misunderstanding

Commissioned by President Richard M. Nixon, March, 1972

Table of Contents

The Report

Letter of Transmittal

Introduction

I. Marihuana and the Problem of Marihuana

• Origins of the Marihuana Problem
  • Visibility
  • Perceived Threats
  • Symbolism
• The Need for Perspective
  • Historical Perspective
  • Cultural Perspective
    • The Search for Meaning
    • Skepticism
    • The Limits of Rationality
• Formulating Marihuana Policy
  • Scientific Oversimplification
  • Philosophical Oversimplification
  • Sociological Oversimplification
  • Legal Oversimplification
• The Report

II. Marihuana Use and Its Effects

• The Marihuana User
• Demographic Characteristics
• Patterns of Use
• Profiles of Users
  • Experimental Users
  • Intermittent Users
  • Moderate and Heavy Users
  • Very Heavy Users
• Becoming a Marihuana User
  • Parental Influence
  • Situational Factors and Behavioral Correlates
  • Social Group Factors
  • The Dynamics of Persistent Use
• Becoming a Multidrug User
  • Epidemiologic Studies
  • Profiles and Dynamics
  • Sociocultural Factors
• Effects of Marihuana on the User
  • Botany and Chemistry
  • Factors Influencing Drug Effect
    • Dosage
    • Method of Use
    • Metabolism
    • Set and Setting
    • Tolerance
    • Reverse Tolerance
    • Duration of Use
    • Patterns of Use
    • Definition of Dependence
• Effects Related to Pattern Use
• Immediate Drug Effects
  • Subjective Effects
  • Body Function
  • Mental Function
  • The Intoxicated State
  • Unpleasant Reactions
  • Anxiety States
  • Psychosis
  • Conclusions
• ShortTerm Effects
• Long Term Effects
• Very Long Term Effects
  • Tolerance and Dependence
  • General Body Function
  • Social Functioning
  • Mental Functioning
  • Motivation and Behavioral Change
• Summary

III. Social Impact of Marihuana Use

• Marihuana and Public Safety
  • Marihuana and Crime
    • The Issue of Cause and Effect
    • Marihuana and Violent Crime
    • Marihuana and Non Violent Crime
    • A Sociocultural Explanation
  • Marihuana and Driving
• Marihuana, Public Health and Welfare
  • A Public Health Approach
    • The Population at Risk
    • Confusion and Fact
• Assessment of Perceived Risks
  • Lethality
  • Potential for Genetic Damage
  • Immediate Effects
  • Effects of LongTerm, Heavy Use
  • Addiction Potential
  • Progression to Other Drugs
• Preventive Public Health Concerns
  • Summary
• Marihuana and the Dominant Social Order
  • The Adult Marihuana User
  • The Young Marihuana User
• The World of Youth
• Why Society Feels Threatened
  • Dropping Out
  • Dropping Down
  • Youth and Radical Politics
  • Youth and the Work Ethic
• The Changing Social Scene

IV. Social Response to Marihuana Use

• The Initial Social Response
• The Change
• The Current Response
  • The Criminal Justice System
    • Law Enforcement Behavior
    • Law Enforcement Opinion
  • The Non Legal Institutions
    • The Family
    • The Schools
    • The Churches
    • The Medical Community
    • Summary
• The Public Response

V. Marihuana and Social Policy

• Drugs in a Free Society
  • Drugs and Social Responsibility
• A Social Control Policy for Marihuana
  • Approval of Use
  • Elimination of Use
  • Discouragement or Neutrality
• Implementing the Discouragement Policy
  • The Role of Law in Effective Social Control
  • Total Prohibition
  • Regulation
  • Partial Prohibition
  • Recommendations for Federal Law
  • Recommendations for State Law
  • Discussion of Federal Recommendations
  • Discussion of State Recommendations
  • Discussion of Potential Objections
• A Final Comment

Addendum

Ancillary Recommendations

Legal and Law Enforcement Recommendations

Medical Recommendations

Other Recommendations

Index of Contributors, Contractors and Consultants

The Appendix

The Technical Papers of the First Report of the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, March, 1972

Letter of Transmittal

Members and Staff

Preface

Part One -- Biological Aspects

I. History of Marihuana Use: Medical and Intoxicant

• History 0f the Medical Use
• The 19th Century
• Medical Uses in the 20th Century
• History of the Intoxicant Use

II. Biological Effects of Marihuana

• Botanical and Chemical Considerations
• Factors Influencing Psychopharmacological Effect
  • Dose-Response Relationship
  • Dose-Time Relationship
  • Route of Administration
  • Quantification of Dose Delivered
  • Effect of Pyrolysis on the Cannabinoids
  • Set and Setting
  • Tolerance
  • Reverse Tolerance
  • Metabolism
  • Pattern of Use
  • Amount of Drug Consumed
  • Duration of Use
  • Interaction With Other Drugs
• Acute Effects of Marihuana (Delta 9 THC)
  • Subjective Effects
  • Lethality
  • Physiological Effects
  • Effects on Mentation and Psychomotor Performance
  • The Intoxicated Mental State
  • Unpleasant Reactions - Too Stoned and Novice Anxiety
  • Acute Psychoses
  • Persistent Effects After Acute Dose
  • Effects of Marijuana on Concomitant Behavior
• Effects of Short-Term or Subacute Use
  • Animal Studies
  •  Human Experiments
• Effects of Long-Term Cannabis Use
  • Dependence And Tolerance
  • Physiological Effects
  • Genetics and Birth Defects
  • Organic Brain Damage
  • Psychosis
  • Amotivational Syndrome
  • Recurrent Phenomenon
• Investigations of Very Heavy, Very Long-Term Cannabis Users
  • Greece
  • Jamaica
  • Afghanistan
  • Summary
  • References

III. Behavioral and Biological Concomitants of Chronic Marihuana Smoking by Heavy and Casual Users

Part Two -- Social Aspects

I. Marihuana Use in American Society

• Surveys of Marihuana Use
• The Incidence and Prevalence of Marihuana Use
• The Future of Marihuana
• Why People Use Marihuana
• Becoming a Marihuana User
• Circumstances of First Marihuana Use
• The Marihuana User
• The Patterns of Marihuana Use
• Marihuana Use and the User: 1972

II. Marihuana and the Use of Other Drugs

• Empirical Data on the Escalation Process
• Youth Drug Use Survey
• Summary

III. Marihuana and Public Safety

• Problems in Assessing the Effects of Marihuana
• Marihuana and Violence
  • The Violent and Criminogenic Effects of Marijuana
  • Marihuana and Violent Crime - The Evidence
  • Opinions About Marihuana and Aggressiveness
• Marihuana and Sexual Behavior
• Marihuana and (Non-Violent) Crime
  • Public and Professional Opinion
  • Studies of Offender Populations
  • The Relationship Between Marihuana and Crime
  • Excerpts from Marijuana Use and Crime - Preface
  • The Effects of Marijuana
  • Crimes Under the Influence
  • Who Commits Crime and Who Doesn't?
  • Marijuana Use and Crime - Causal or Spurious
  • Summary and Conclusions
• Summary and Conclusions: Marihuana and Crime
• Marihuana and Driving
  • The Current State of Knowledge
  • Statistical Studies
  • Experimental Studies
  • References

Part Three -- Legal Aspects

I. Control of Marihuana, Alcohol and Tobacco

• History of Marihuana Legislation
  • State Prohibition - 1914-1930
  • The Uniform Narcotic Drug Act
  • Drafting the Uniform Act
  • Enacting the Uniform Act By the States
  • Enactment of the Marihuana Tax Act
  • Tightening The Law
  • 1960-1970 New Legislative Approach
  • References
• History of Alcohol Prohibition
  • 1650 - 1750: The First Hundred Years
  • 1750-1825: Temperance Stirrings
  • 1825-1870: The Pledge
  • 1870-1913: Toward A National Conscience
  • 1913-1933: National Prohibition - Prologue and Finish
  • Prohibition in Perspective
  • References
• History of Tobacco Regulation
  • Regulation of Production
  • Regulation for Revenue
  • Tobacco Revenues
  • Regulation of Consumption
  • State Regulation
  • The Impetus for Federal Regulation
  • The Health Warning Requirement
  • The Fairness Doctrine
  • The Ban on Advertising
  • Consumption Trends
  • Tobacco: Economics and Politics
  • Conclusion
  • References

II. The Legal Status of Marihuana

• International Control
• The Control of Marihuana Under Federal Law
• Control of Marihuana at the State Level
• The Role of Ancillary Offenses and Constructive Possession in Controlling Marihuana
• Marihuana Control at the Local Level
• Analysis of Statutes Requiring Physicians to Report Drug Addiction

III. Trafficking Patterns of Marihuana and Hashish

• Marihuana Traffic From Mexico
• Marihuana Traffic From Jamaica
• The Growing Hashish Traffic

Part Four -- Response of the Criminal Justice System to Marihuana Use

Introduction

I. Enforcement Behavior at the State Level

Enforcement Behavior at the Federal Level

• General Trends
• Federal Enforcement of the Marihuana Laws: 1970

III. Opinion Within the Criminal Justice System

• Prosecutorial Opinion
• Opinion of Court Officials

Part Five -- National Survey

I. A Nationwide Study of Beliefs, Information and Experiences

• Main Report
• Methods and Procedures

Part Six -- Social Policy Aspects

I. The Constitutional Dimensions of Marihuana Control

• Substantive Limitations on the Criminal Law
• Federal Preemption of Marihuana Control

II. Models and Statutory Schemes for Controlling Marihuana

• Law and Social Policy
• Legal Implementations of Marihuana Control Policies
• Formulating a Legal Scheme
• Implementation of Alcohol Prohibition

Marihuana and Education

• Drug Programs in American Education
• State Departments of Education Survey
• Commission Visits
• Drug Education Programs of Special Interest
• Marihuana Education in State Programs
• Surveys of College Drug Courses
• The Federal Government and Drug Education

Research Needs and Directions

• Biomedical
• Psychosocial
• Legal and Law Enforcement

Index of Contributors, Contractors and Consultants

Research Papers Prepared for the Commission